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Blackburn Buccaneer
The Blackburn Buccaneer was a British low-level subsonic strike aircraft that served with the Royal Navy (RN) and later the Royal Air Force (RAF), retiring from service in 1994. Designed and initially produced by Blackburn Aircraft at Brough, it was later known as the Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer when Blackburn became a part of the Hawker Siddeley group. The Royal Navy originally procured the Buccaneer as a naval strike aircraft capable of operating from their aircraft carriers, introducing the type to service in 1962 to counterbalance advances made in the Soviet Navy. The Buccaneer was capable of delivering nuclear weapons as well as conventional munitions for anti-shipping warfare, and were typically active in the North Sea area during its service. Early on the initial production aircraft suffered a series of accidents due to insufficient engine power, thus the Buccaneer S.2, equipped with more powerful Rolls-Royce Spey engines, was soon introduced. Although they originally rejected it in favour of the supersonic BAC TSR-2, the RAF later procured the Buccaneer as a substitute following the cancellation of both the TSR-2 and its planned replacement, the F-111K. When the RN retired the last of its large aircraft carriers, its Buccaneers were transferred to the RAF. The South African Air Force also procured the type. Buccaneers saw combat action in the Gulf War and the South African Border War. In RN service, the Buccaneer was replaced with the V/STOL British Aerospace Sea Harrier. In RAF service, they were replaced by the Panavia Tornado. Development Royal Navy In the early 1950s, the Soviet Navy introduced the Sverdlov class cruiser into service. Light cruisers by Second World War standard, they were fast, effectively armed and numerous. Like the German "pocket battleships" during the Second World War, they presented a serious threat to the merchant fleets in the Atlantic, but they were in far greater numbers and up to 25% faster. To counter this threat, the Royal Navy decided not to use a new ship class of its own, but instead introduce a specialised strike aircraft employing conventional or nuclear weapons. Operating from the Navy's fleet carriers and attacking at high speed and low level, it would offer a solution to the Sverdlov problem.Chesneau 2005, pp. 5–6. colour scheme is for the nuclear strike role]] A detailed specification was issued in June 1952 as Naval Staff Requirement NA.39, calling for a two-seat aircraft with folding wings, capable of flying at at sea level, with a combat radius of low down and at altitude. A weapons load of was required including conventional bombs, the Red Beard free-fall nuclear bomb or the Green Cheese anti-ship missile.English Aeroplane April 2012, p. 72. Based on the requirement, the Ministry of Supply issued specification M.148T in August 1952, and the first responses were returned in February 1953. Blackburn's design by Barry P. Laight, Project B-103, won the tender in July 1955.Jackson 1968, p. 480. Owing to secrecy, the aircraft was called BNA (Blackburn Naval Aircraft) or BANA (Blackburn Advanced Naval Aircraft) in documents, leading to the nickname of "Banana Jet". The first prototype made its maiden flight from RAE Bedford on 30 April 1958.Jackson 1968, p. 481.Chesneau 2005, pp. 6–8. The first Buccaneer model, the Buccaneer S.1, was powered by a pair of de Havilland Gyron Junior turbojets producing of thrust.Green 1964, p. 430. This mark was somewhat underpowered and as a consequence could not take off fully laden with both fuel and armament. A temporary solution to this problem was the "buddy" system; aircraft took off with a full load of weaponry and minimal fuel and would sortie with a Supermarine Scimitar that would deliver the full load of fuel by aerial refuelling.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 48.Bishop and Chant 2004, p. 162. The lack of power meant, however, that loss of an engine during take-off or landing at full load, when the aircraft was dependent on flap blowing, could be catastrophic.Jackson 1968, pp. 487–488. The long-term solution was the Buccaneer S.2, fitted with the Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan, which provided 40% more thrust with a greatly reduced fuel consumption. The engine nacelles had to be enlarged to accommodate the Spey, and the wing required minor aerodynamic modifications as a result.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, pp. 49–50. Hawker Siddeley announced the production order for the S.2 in January 1962.Flight International 11 January 1962, p. 38. South Africa In October 1962, 16 aircraft were ordered by the South African Air Force, as the Buccaneer S.50."British to sell jets to Africa." Spokan Daily Chronicle, 12 October 1962. p. 10. These were S.2 aircraft with the addition of Bristol Siddeley BS.605 rocket engines to provide additional thrust for the "hot and high" African airfields. The S.50 was also equipped with strengthened undercarriage and higher capacity wheel brakes, and had manually folded wings. They were equipped to use the AS-30 command guided air-to-surface missiles. In-flight refuelling was also specified and due to the vast coastline, longer range underwing tanks.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, pp. 51–53. Once in service, the extra thrust of the BS.605 rocket engines proved to be unnecessary and thus the rockets were very rarely operated and were eventually removed from all aircraft.Van Pelt 2012, p. 180. South Africa later sought to procure further Buccaneers, but the British Government blocked further orders due to an imposition of a United Nations embargo of South Africa.Laming 1996, pp. 11–12. Royal Air Force Blackburn's first attempt to sell the Buccaneer to the Royal Air Force (RAF) occurred in 1957–58, in response to the Air Ministry Operational Requirement OR.339, for a replacement for the RAF's English Electric Canberra's light bombers, with supersonic speed and a combat radius; asking for an all-weather aircraft that could deliver nuclear weapons over a long range, operate at high level at Mach 2+ or low level at Mach 1.2, with STOL performance.Wynn 1997, p. 503. Blackburn proposed two designs, the B.103A, a simple modification of the Buccaneer S.1 with more fuel, and the B.108, a more extensively modified aircraft with more sophisticated avionics. Against a background of interservice distrust, political issues and the 1957 Defence White Paper, both types were rejected by the RAF, as being firmly subsonic and incapable of meeting the RAF's range requirements, while the B.108, which retained Gyron Junior engines while being heavier than the S.1, would have been severely underpowered, giving poor short-take off performance. The BAC TSR-2 was eventually selected in 1959.Buttler Air Enthusiast September/October 1995, pp. 12–13, 15–16, 21–23.Boot Aeroplane Monthly March 1995, p. 29. After the cancellation of the TSR-2 and then the substitute American General Dynamics F-111K, the Royal Air Force still required a replacement for its Canberras in the low-level strike role, while the planned retirement for the Royal Navy's aircraft carriers meant that the RAF would also need to add a maritime strike capability. It was therefore decided in 1968 that the RAF would adopt the Buccaneer, both by the purchase of new-build aircraft, and by taking over the Fleet Air Arm's Buccaneers as the carriers were retired.Wynn Flight International 11 February 1971, p. 203.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, pp. 59–60.Boot 1990, pp. 64–65. A total of 46 new-build aircraft for the RAF were built by Blackburn's successor, Hawker Siddeley, designated S.2B. These had RAF-type communications and avionics equipment, Martel air-to-surface missile capability, and could be equipped with a bulged bomb-bay door containing an extra fuel tank. Some Fleet Air Arm Buccaneers were modified in-service to also carry the Martel anti-ship missile. Martel-capable FAA aircraft were later redesignated S.2D. The remaining aircraft became S.2C. RAF aircraft were given various upgrades. Self-defence was improved by the addition of the AN/ALQ-101 ECM pod (also found on RAF's SEPECAT Jaguar GR.3), chaff / flare dispensers and AIM-9 Sidewinder capability. RAF low-level strike Buccaneers could carry what was known as "retard defence"; four retarded bombs internally that could be dropped to provide an effective deterrent against any following aircraft. In 1979, the RAF obtained the American AN/AVQ-23E Pave Spike laser designator pod for Paveway II guided bombs; allowing the aircraft to act as target designators for other Buccaneers, Jaguars, and other strike aircraft. From 1986, No. 208 Squadron RAF then No. 12 (B) Sqn replaced the Martel ASM with the Sea Eagle missile."RAF plans Buccaneer update." Flight International, 4 February 1984. p. 316. Proposed developments Further developments beyond the Buccaneer S.2 were put forward by Hawker Siddeley in the 1960s and 1970s; however none would be pursued through to production by either the Royal Navy or the Royal Air Force. One such effort was designated as Buccaneer 2*, which was presented as a cost-effective alternative to the TSR-2. The 2* would have featured newer equipment such as head-up displays and onboard computers from the cancelled Hawker Siddeley P.1154 VTOL aircraft, it would have also adopted the same radar system as that being developed for the TSR-2. An even more extensively upgraded model, the Buccaneer 2** was also mooted, which would have been furnished with more sophisticated land-strike capabilities derived from the TSR-2 again. According to Denis Healey, former Secretary of State for Defence 1964-1970, the RAF had been hostile to the Buccaneer due to it being a naval aircraft; it has been further suggested that developing improved Buccaneers for the RAF would weaken arguments against the Royal Navy's planned CVA-01 class aircraft carriers.Hampshire 2013, p. 60. In one report by the Ministry of Defence, it was claimed that two Buccaneer 2* could do the job of one General Dynamics F-111 and would cost half the per unit cost.Hampshire 2013, pp. 60–61. Design Overview The Buccaneer was a mid-wing, twin-engine monoplane with a crew of two in a tandem seat arrangement. In service, the Buccaneer was required to regularly fly at sea level in order to avoid radar and enemy air defense systems, often flying long range missions from both aircraft carriers and shore bases.Polmar 2006, pp. 183–184. The aircraft had an all-weather flight capability due to the extensive electronics used on the type for navigation and fire-control functions, these systems also greatly assisted the crew during low level flight operations. The Buccaneer was one of the largest aircraft to operate from British aircraft carriers, and continued operating from them until the last conventional carrier was withdrawn in 1978.Polmar 2006, p. 184. During its service, the Buccaneer was the backbone of the Navy's ground strike operations, including the critically important nuclear strike mission. In order to enable the aircraft to perform effectively in the crucial low level flight conditions it was operated under, several major design features were integrated into the Buccaneer. The then-new technology of boundary layer control (BLC) was studied extensively and a fully 'blown' wing was adopted, significantly improving low-speed performance crucial to effective carrier operations. The Buccaneer featured a large internal bomb bay, in which a wide range of conventional and nuclear armaments could be housed, in addition to external weapons mounting points. The fuselage of the aircraft was designed for exceptional strength and durability, and to resist the phenomenon of metal fatigue exacerbated by prolonged flight operations at low altitude.Laming 1996, p. 11. Armament and equipment The Buccaneer had been designed specifically as a maritime nuclear strike aircraft. Its intended weapon was a nuclear air-to-surface missile codenamed Green Cheese, but this weapon's development was cancelled, and in its place was the unguided Red Beard, which had been developed for the Canberra. Red Beard had an explosive yield in the 10 to 20 kiloton range; and was mounted on a special bomb bay door into which it nested neatly to reduce aerodynamic buffet on the launch aircraft. At low levels and high speeds, traditional bomb bay doors could not be opened safely into the air stream; therefore, doors were developed that rotated into the fuselage to expose the payload; this feature also proved convenient in providing ground-level access.Winchester 2006, p. 31. The bomb bay could also accommodate a ferry tank, as well as a photo-reconnaissance "crate" or a cargo container. The reconnaissance package featured an assortment of six cameras, each at different angles or having different imaging properties, and was only mounted on missions specifically involving reconnaissance activities.Polmar 2006, p. 186. The Buccaneer also featured four underwing hard points capable of mounting bombs, small missiles or other equipment such as flares; the aircraft was capable of carrying practically all munitions being used by Royal Navy aircraft upon its entry into service.Gunston 1962, p. 478. At one point it was intended for a pack with twin Aden 30 mm cannons to be developed for the Buccaneer, however the effort was abandoned and the type never carried a cannon armament.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 14. The majority of the rear fuselage's internal area is used to house electronics, such as many elements of the radio, equipment supporting the aircraft's radar functionality, and the crew's liquid oxygen life support system; the compartment is actively cooled by ram air drawn from the tailfin.Gunston 1962, pp. 475, 478. For redundancy, the Buccaneer featured three independent hydraulic systems, and dual busbars for electrical systems.Gunston 1962, p. 477. The aircraft was made easier to control and land via an integrated flight control computer that performed auto-stabilisation and auto pilot functions.Gunston 1962, p. 479. Boundary layer control airflow over the wing]] In order to dramatically improve aerodynamic performance at slow speeds, such as during take-off and landing, Blackburn adopted a new aerodynamic control technology, known as boundary layer control (BLC). BLC bled high pressure air directly from the engines and strategically "blowing" against various parts of the aircraft's wing surfaces. A full-span slit along the part of the wing's trailing edge was found to give almost 50% more lift than any contemporary scheme. In order to counteract the severe pitch movements that would otherwise be generated by use of BLC, a self-trimming system was interconnected with the BLC system and additional blowing of the wing's leading edge was also introduced. The use of BLC allowed the use of slats to be entirely discarded in the design.Gunston 1962, p. 469. Before landing, the pilot would open the BLC vents as well as lower the flaps to achieve slow, stable flight. A consequence of the blown wing was that the engines were required to run at high power for low-speed flight in order to generate sufficient compressor gas for blowing. Blackburn's solution to this situation was the adoption of a large air brake; this also allowed an overshooting aircraft to pull away more quickly during a failed landing attempt.Harding 2004, p. 85. The nose cone and radar antenna could also be swung around by 180° to reduce the length of the aircraft in the carrier hangar. This feature was particularly important due to the small size of the aircraft carriers that the Buccaneer typically operated from.Burns and Edwards 1971, pp. 56–58. For a carrier take-off, the Buccaneer was pulled tail-down on the catapult with its nosewheel in the air to put the wing at about 11 degrees; it could be launched "hands-off" - the pilot able to leave the tailplane in a neutral position.Flight International 14 January 1971, p. 57. With blowing on, the Spey 101 output drops to around though about is recovered from the trailing edge slits which face aft. About 70% of the blown air goes over the flaps and ailerons (which are in a drooped position).Flight International 14 January 1971, p. 58. Off an aircraft carrier, the minimum launch speed was around 120 knots at ; from an airfield, the Buccaneer took off in at with blown air, the figures become at without blown air.Burns and Edwards 1971, pp. 58–59. Fuselage and structure The fuselage of the Buccaneer was designed using the area rule technique, which had the effort of reducing drag while travelling at high subsonic and transonic speeds, and gave rise to the characteristic curvy "Coke bottle" shape of the fuselage. The majority of the airframe and fuselage was machined from solid casting to give great strength to endure the stress of low level operations, considerable effort went into ensuring that metal fatigue would not be a limiting factor of the Buccaneer's operational life even under the formidable conditions imposed of continuous low level flight. A large air brake was built into the tail cone of the aircraft. The hydraulically operated air brake formed two leaves that could be opened into the airstream to quickly decelerate the aircraft.Boot Aeroplane Monthly March 1995, p. 26. The style of air brake chosen by Blackburn was highly effective in the dive-attack profile that the Buccaneer was intended to perform, as well as effectively balancing out induced drag from operating the BLC system.Gunston 1962, p. 468. It featured a variable incidence tailplane that could be trimmed to suit the particular requirements of low-speed handling or high-speed flight; the tailplane had to be high mounted due to the positioning and functionality of the Buccaneer's air brake. The wing design of the Buccaneer was a compromise between two requirements: a low aspect ratio for gust response and high aspect ratio to give good range performance.Flight International 14 January 1971, p. 56. The small wing was suited to high-speed flight at low altitude; however, a small wing did not generate sufficient lift that was essential for carrier operations. Therefore, BLC was used upon both the wing and horizontal stabilizer, having the effect of energising and smoothing the boundary layer airflow, which significantly reduced airflow separation at the back of the wing, and therefore decreased stall speed, and increased effectiveness of trailing edge control surfaces including flaps and ailerons. Operational history Fleet Air Arm ), two Royal Navy Phantom FG.1 (892 NAS) from , over Jacksonville, Florida in 1976, accompanied by three US Navy A-7E Corsair IIs]] The Buccaneer entered service with the Fleet Air Arm on 17 July 1962 when 801 NAS was commissioned at RNAS Lossiemouth in Scotland."Buccaneer Enters Service Today." Times England, 17 July 1962: 6 via The Times Digital Archive, 3 May 2013. The Buccaneer quickly replaced the FAA's Supermarine Scimitar, which had previously been performing the naval attack fight duties.Chesneau 2005, p. 9. In addition to conventional ordnance, the Buccaneer was type-approved for nuclear weapons delivery in 1965; weapons deployed included Red Beard and WE.177 drop-bombs, which were carried internally in a rotating bomb-bay. Two Fleet Air Arm operational squadrons and a training unit were equipped with the Buccaneer S.1. The aircraft was well liked by Navy aircrew for its strength and flying qualities, and the BLC system gave them slower landing speeds than they were accustomed to. The Buccaneers were painted dark sea grey on top and anti-flash white on the undersides.Chesneau 2005, p. 24. The Buccaneer S.1's Gyron Junior engines were not powerful enough, and they led to the type's career coming to an abrupt end in December 1970. On 1 December, an S.1 was making a landing approach when an engine surge disrupted the approach and forced the two crewmen to eject. On 8 December, an S.1 on a training flight suffered a turbine failure. The pilot successfully ejected, but due to a mechanical glitch the back-seater was killed. Subsequent inspections concluded that the Gyron Junior engine was not to a standard now considered to be suited for operations. All surviving S.1s were grounded immediately on a permanent basis.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 62. By April 1965, intensive trials of the new Buccaneer S.2 had begun, with the type enter operational service with the FAA later that year. The improved S.2 type proved its value when it became the first FAA aircraft to make a non-stop, unrefuelled crossing of the Atlantic Ocean.Chesneau 2005, p. 12. On 28 March 1967, Buccaneers from RNAS Lossiemouth bombed the shipwrecked supertanker off the western coast of Cornwall to make the oil burn in order to avoid an environmental disaster. In 1972, Buccaneers of 809 Naval Air Squadron operating from HMS Ark Royal took part in a 1,500 mile mission to show a military presence over British Honduras (modern day Belize) shortly before its independence, to deter a possible Guatemalan invasion in pursuit of their territorial claims over the country.White 2009, p. 242. The Buccaneer also participated in regular patrols and exercises in the North Sea, practicing the type's role if war had broken out with the Soviet Union. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Royal Navy standardised the air wings operating from their carriers around the Phantom, Buccaneer, and the Fairey Gannet aircraft.Bishop and Chant 2004, p. 115. A total of six FAA squadrons were equipped with the Buccaneer: 700B/700Z (Intensive Flying Trials Unit), 736 (training), 800, 801, 803 and 809 Naval Air Squadrons. Buccaneers were embarked on , , and .Bishop and Chant 2004, pp. 65, 71–72, 74. The Buccaneer was retired from Fleet Air Arm service with the decommissioning of the Ark Royal in 1978. The Royal Navy would replace their naval strike capability with V/STOL-capable British Aerospace Sea Harriers, operating from the smaller Invincible class aircraft carriers.Ford, Terry. "Sea Harrier – A New Dimension." Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology, Volume 53, Issue 6, 1981. Royal Air Force After the F-111K was cancelled in early 1968, due to the programme suffering serious cost escalation and delays, the RAF was forced to look for a replacement that was available and affordable, and reluctantly selected the Buccaneer.Laming 1996, p. 12. The first RAF unit to receive the Buccaneer was 12 Squadron at RAF Honington in October 1969, in the maritime strike role, at first equipped with ex-Royal Navy Buccaneers S.2As.Chesneau 2005, p. 21. This was to remain a key station for the type as 15 Squadron equipped with the Buccaneer the following year, before moving to RAF Laarbruch in 1971, and the RAF Buccaneer conversion unit, 237 OCU, forming at Honington in March 1971.English Aeroplane April 2012, pp. 81–82. The Buccaneer was seen as an interim solution, but delays in the Panavia Tornado programme would ensure that the "interim" period would stretch out, and the Buccaneer would remain in RAF service for over two decades, long after the FAA had given up the type. With the phased withdrawal of the Royal Navy's carrier fleet during the 1970s, Fleet Air Arm Buccaneers were transferred to the RAF, which had taken over the maritime strike role. 62 of the 84 S.2 aircraft were eventually transferred, redesignated S.2A; some of these were later upgraded to S.2B standard. Ex-FAA aircraft equipped 16 Squadron, joining 15 Squadron at RAF Laarbruch, and 208 Squadron at Honington; the last ex-FAA aircraft went to 216 Squadron. From 1970, with 12 Squadron initially, followed by 15 Squadron, 16 Squadron, No. 237 OCU, 208 Squadron and 216 Squadron, the RAF Buccaneer force re-equipped with WE.177 nuclear weapons. At peak strength Buccaneers equipped six RAF squadrons, although for one year only. A more sustained strength of five squadrons was made up of three squadrons (15 Squadron, 16 Squadron, 208 Squadron) plus No. 237 OCU (a war reserve or Shadow squadron) all assigned to [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR)]] for land strike duties in support of land forces opposing Warsaw Pact land forces on the Continent, plus one squadron (12 Squadron) assigned to SACLANT for maritime strike duties. Opportunities for Buccaneer squadrons to engage in realistic training were limited, and so when the US began their Red Flag military exercises at Nellis Air Force Base in 1975, the RAF became keenly interested. The first Red Flag in which RAF aircraft were involved was in 1977, with 10 Buccaneers and two Avro Vulcan bombers participating. Buccaneers would be involved in later Red Flags through to 1983, and in 1979 also participated in the similar Maple Flag exercise over Canada. The Buccaneer proved impressive with its fast low-level attacks, which were highly accurate despite the aircraft's lack of terrain-following radar and other modern avionics. They were able to penetrate adversary defences, and were credited with "kills" on defending fighters using AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. During the 1980 Red Flag exercises, one of the participating Buccaneers lost a wing in mid-flight due to a fatigue-induced crack and crashed, killing its crew. The entire RAF Buccaneer fleet was grounded in February 1980, subsequent investigation discovered serious metal fatigue problems to be present on numerous aircraft.Chesneau 2005, pp. 16, 22. A total of 60 aircraft were selected to receive new spar rings while others were scrapped; the nascent 216 Squadron was subsequently disbanded due to a resulting reduction in aircraft numbers. Later the same year, the UK-based Buccaneer squadrons moved to RAF Lossiemouth. In 1983, six Buccaneer S.2s were sent to Cyprus to support British peacekeepers in Lebanon as a part of Operation Pulsator. On 11 September 1983, two of these aircraft flew low over Beirut, their presence intended to intimidate insurgents rather than inflict damage directly.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 84. After 1983, the land strike duties were mostly re-assigned to the Tornado aircraft then entering service, and two Buccaneer squadrons remaining (12 Squadron, and 208 Squadron) were then assigned to SACLANT for maritime strike duties. Only the 'Shadow Squadron', No. 237 OCU, remained assigned to the role of land strike on long term assignment to SACEUR, No. 237 was also to operate as a designator for Jaguar ground strike aircraft in the event of conflict.Cope, Bill. "Gulf War Buccaneer Operations." Royal Air Force, Retrieved: 8 May 2013. The Buccaneer stood down from its reserve nuclear delivery duties in 1991. The Buccaneer took part in combat operations during the 1991 Gulf War. It had been anticipated that Buccaneers may need to perform in the target designation role, although early on this had been though to be "unlikely" to be called upon. Following a short-notice decision to deploy, the first batch of six aircraft were readied to deploy in under 72 hours, including the adoption of desert camouflage and additional equipment, departing for Lossiemouth for the Middle Eastern theatre early on 26 January 1991. In theatre, it became common for each attack formation to comprise four Tornados and two Buccaneers; each Buccaneer carried a single laser designator pod and acted as backup to the other in the event of an equipment malfunction. The first combat mission took place on 2 February, operating at a medium altitude of roughly 18,000 feet, and successfully attacked the As Suwaira Road Bridge. Operations continued on practically every available day; missions did not take place at night as the laser pod lacked night-time functionality. Approximately 20 road bridges were destroyed by Buccaneer-supported missions, restricting the Iraqi Army's mobility and communications. In conjunction with the advance of Coalition ground forces into Iraq, Buccaneer strike missions switched to airfield bombing missions, targeting bunkers, runways and any aircraft sighted; following the guidance of the Tornado's laser-guided ordinance, the Buccaneers would commonly conduct dive bombing runs upon remaining targets of opportunity in the vicinity before. In one incident on the 21 February 1991, a pair of Buccaneers destroyed two Iraqi transport aircraft on the ground at the Shayka Mazhar airfield. The Buccaneers flew 218 missions during the Gulf War, in which they designated targets for other aircraft and dropped 48 laser-guided bombs.Gething 1994, pp. 143–144. Following the war, squadrons operating the Buccaneer were quickly rundown and re-equipped with the Tornado, by mid-1993 208 Squadron had become the sole remaining operator of the type.Chesneau 2005, p. 22. The last Buccaneers were withdrawn in March 1994 when 208 Squadron disbanded.Jefford 2001, p. 72. South African Air Force South Africa was the only country other than the UK to operate the Buccaneer, where it was in service with the South African Air Force (SAAF) from 1965 to 1991. In January 1963, even before the S.2 entered squadron service, South Africa had purchased 16 Spey-powered Buccaneers. The order was part of the Simonstown Agreement, in which the UK obtained use of the Simonstown naval base in South Africa in exchange for maritime weapons."Simonstown Agreement." Hansard, 8 February 1967. Of the 16 aircraft ordered, one was lost on its delivery flight, and 15 entered service. Their standard colour scheme was dark grey on top and dark blue on the bottom, with some variation in pattern over time. In the maritime strike role, SAAF Buccaneers were armed with the French radio-guided AS-30 missile. In March 1971, Buccaneers fired 12 AS-30s at a stricken tanker, the Wafra, but failed to sink it. The AS-30 missile was also used in ground attacks for effective precision strikes, one example being in 1981 when multiple missile was used to strike a series of radar stations in southern Angola."SA-30 Air-to-Surface Missile." SAAF Museum, Retrieved: 19 May 2013. For overland attack, the SAAF Buccaneers carried up to four 450 kg (1,000 lb) bombs in the rotary bomb bay, and four bombs, flares, or SNEB rocket packs on the underwing stores pylons. During the 1990s, it was revealed that South Africa had manufactured six air-deliverable tactical nuclear weapons between 1978 and 1993. These nuclear weapons, composing of HEU with an estimated explosion yield of 10-18 kilotons, were designed for delivery by either the Buccaneer or the English Electric Canberra bomber."Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI)." Nuclear Disarmament South Africa. Retrieved: 11 June 2012. SAAF Buccaneers saw active service during the South Africa Border War, frequently flying over Angola and Namibia and launching attacks upon SWAPO guerilla camps across the 1970s and 1980s. During a ground offensive, Buccaneers would often fly close air support missions armed with anti-personnel rockets, as well as performing bombardment operations.Steenkamp 2006, pp. 151-153, 164. Buccaneers played a major role in the Battle of Cassinga in 1978, being employed in repeatedly strikes upon armoured vehicles, including enemy tanks, and to cover the withdrawal of friendly ground forces from the combat zone.Steenkamp 2006, pp. 178-179, 187. Others Early in the Buccaneer programme, the US Navy had expressed mild interest in the aircraft, but quickly moved on to the development of their comparable Grumman A-6 Intruder. The West German Navy showed a greater interest and considered replacing their Hawker Sea Hawks with the type, although they eventually decided on the Lockheed F-104G for their maritime strike requirement following the bribing of West German government officials in the Lockheed bribery scandals. Variants ;Blackburn NA.39 :Pre-production build of 9 prototype NA.39 aircraft and a development batch of 14 S.1s ordered 2 June 1955. ;Buccaneer S.1 :First production model, powered by de Havilland Gyron Junior 101 turbojet engines. 40 built ordered on 25 September 1959, built at Brough and towed to Holme-on-Spalding Moor for first flight and testing. First aircraft flown on 23 January 1962. A further ten S.1 aircraft ordered in September 1959 were completed as S.2s. ;Buccaneer S.2 :Development of the S.1 with various improvements and powered by the more powerful Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan engines. From 1962, 10 were built by Blackburn Aircraft Ltd. and 74 by Hawker Siddeley Aviation Ltd.Chesneau 2005, pp. 11–12. ;Buccaneer S.2A :Ex-Royal Navy S.2 aircraft reworked for RAF.Chesneau 2005, p. 14. ;Buccaneer S.2B :Variant of S.2 for RAF squadrons. Capable of carrying the Martel anti-radar or anti-shipping missile. 46 built between 1973 and 1977, plus three for Ministry of Defence weapons trials work.Chesneau 2005, pp. 15–16. ;Buccaneer S.2C :Royal Navy aircraft upgraded to S.2A standard. ;Buccaneer S.2D :Royal Navy aircraft upgraded to S.2B standard, operational with Martels from 1975.Chesneau 2005, p. 16. ;Buccaneer S.50 :Variant for South Africa. Wings could be folded but folding was no longer powered. Aircraft could be equipped with two single-stage rockets (see RATO) to assist take-off from hot-and-high airfields like that of AFB Waterkloof in Pretoria, where the type was mostly based.Chesneau 2005, p. 18. Operators ]] ; *South African Air Force **24 Squadron SAAF formed at Lossiemouth in Scotland on 1 May 1965, training its crews before moving back to South Africa in November that year, being based at Waterkloof. It disbanded on 28 March 1991.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 103. colours at Kemble Airport, England]] ; *Royal Air Force **No. 12 Squadron RAF formed at RAF Honington on 1 October 1969, in an anti-shipping role. It moved to RAF Lossiemouth in Scotland in November 1980 and disbanded on 30 November 1993.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 98. **No. 15 Squadron RAF formed at Honington on 1 October 1970, moving to RAF Laarbruch in Germany in January 1971, operating in the overland strike role. It disbanded on 1 July 1983, handing its aircraft to 16 Squadron.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 99. **No. 16 Squadron RAF re-equipped from the Canberra B(I)8 at Laarbruch in October 1972. It discarded its Buccaneers on 29 February 1984, re-equipping with the Panavia Tornado. **No. 208 Squadron RAF reformed at Honington on 1 July 1974 in the strike role. It switched its primary mission to anti-shipping in 1983, moving to Lossiemouth in July that year. It disbanded on 31 March 1994, the last of the RAF's Buccaneer squadrons.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 100. **No. 216 Squadron RAF formed at Honington on 1 July 1979, with the intended role of anti-shipping operations. When the Buccaneer was grounded in 1980, the Squadron handed its aircraft to 12 Squadron without becoming operational. **No. 237 Operational Conversion Unit RAF formed at RAF Honington on 1 March 1971 as the Operational Conversion Unit for the Buccaneer. In 1984 it gained the additional role of laser designation support for Royal Air Force Germany, and moved north to Lossiemouth in October 1984. The OCU disbanded on 1 October 1991, with training duties for the Buccaneer being handled by 208 Squadron.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 101. *Fleet Air Arm **700Z/700B Naval Air Squadron (S.1 and S.2 Intensive Flying Trials Units, respectively)Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 94. **736 Naval Air Squadron formed on 29 March 1965 as the Fleet Air Arm Buccaneer training squadron when 809 Squadron disbanded. It disbanded on 25 February 1972, with the task of training Buccaneer crews for the Fleet Air Arm transferred to 237 OCU.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 95. **800 Naval Air Squadron commissioned on 18 March 1964, serving aboard HMS Eagle. It disbanded on 23 February 1972. **801 Naval Air Squadron commissioned on 17 July 1962 as the Fleet Air Arm's first Buccaneer squadron. It made one shakedown deployment on HMS Ark Royal, before being assigned to HMS Victorious. After Victorious was retired following a fire in 1967, 801 Naval Air Squadron was assigned to HMS Hermes, disbanding on 21 July 1970.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 96. **803 Naval Air Squadron commissioned on 3 July 1967 at Lossiemouth as the Buccaneer trials and headquarters squadron, disbanding on 18 December 1969. **809 Naval Air Squadron commissioned on 15 January 1963 as the Buccaneer headquarters and training squadron. It disbanded in March 1965 when it was renumbered as 736 Naval Air Squadron. It reformed in January 1966 as an operational squadron equipped with the Buccaneer S.2, deploying on HMS Hermes in 1967–68, and on HMS Ark Royal from 1970 until the carrier decommissioned in 1978. It disbanded on 15 December 1978.Calvert and Donald Wings of Fame Volume 14, p. 97. Civil operators Three privately owned Buccaneers located at Thunder City"BAe 2 Buccaneer." ThunderCity, 2010. Retrieved: 18 August 2010. in Cape Town are still airworthy in 2009."Cape Town Jets: Thunder City." Incredible Adventures, 2009. Retrieved: 7 October 2009. Survivors In the United Kingdom Buccaneer S.2 XX885 is being rebuilt to flying condition by Hawker Hunter Aviation. It was granted UK CAA permission to fly in April 2006.White, Andy. "CAA Approval to Fly! XX885 (G-HHAA) To Return to the Sky." blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk, 12 April 2006. Retrieved: 7 October 2009.Scott, Richard "Hawker Hunter Aviation's new model air force." Flight International, 17 December 2007. A number of Buccaneers in the UK are in fast taxiing condition and several more are being rebuilt to taxiing condition.White, Andy. "XX894." blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk, 5 April 2009. Retrieved: 7 October 2009.White, Andy. "XW544." blackburn-buccaneer.co.uk, 5 April 2009. Retrieved: 7 October 2009. Specifications (Buccaneer S.2) |hardpoint bombs=Various unguided bombs, Laser-guided bombs, as well as the Red Beard or WE.177 tactical nuclear bombs |hardpoint rockets=4× Matra rocket pods with 18× SNEB 68 mm rockets each |hardpoint missiles=2× AIM-9 Sidewinders for self-defence or 2× AS-37 Martel missiles or 4× Sea Eagle missile |hardpoint other=AN/ALQ-101 ECM protection pod, AN/AVQ-23 Pave Spike Laser designator pod, Buddy refuelling pack or Drop tanks for extended range/loitering time }} See also *Sukhoi Su-17 *Dassault Étendard IV *Douglas A-4 Skyhawk *Grumman A-6 Intruder *LTV A-7 Corsair II *List of aircraft of the Fleet Air Arm *List of attack aircraft References Citations Bibliography *Bishop, Chris and Chris Chant. Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2004. ISBN 0-76032-005-5. *Boot, Roy. "Father of the Buccaneer". Aeroplane Monthly, Vol. 23, No. 3, March 1995,. pp. 24–29. ISSN 0143-7240. *Boot, Roy. From Spitfire to Eurofighter: 45 Years of Combat Aircraft Design. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 1990. ISBN 1-85310-093-5. *Burns, J.G. and M. Edwards. "Blow, blow thou BLC wind". Flight International Vol. 99, No. 3227, 14 January 1971, pp. 56–59. *Buttler, Tony. "Strike Rivals: The ones that 'lost' when the TSR.2 'won'." Air Enthusiast, No. 59, September/October 1995, pp. 12–23. *Calvert, Denis J. and David Donald. "Blackburn Buccaneer". Wings of Fame, Volume 14. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1999. pp. 34–103. ISBN 1-86184-029-2. ISSN 1361-2034. *Chesneau, Roger. "Aeroguide 30 - Blackburn Buccaneer S Mks 1 and 2". Suffolk, UK: Ad Hoc Publications, 2005. ISBN 0-94695-840-8. *English, Malcolm. "Database: Blackburn (Hawker Siddeley) Buccaneer". Aeroplane, Vol. 40, No. 4, April 2012, pp. 69–86. *Gething, Michael J. "The Buccaneer Bows Out: Valediction for the Sky Pirate". Air International, Vol. 46, No 3, March 1994, pp. 137–144. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing. ISSN 0306-5634. *Green, William. Aircraft Handbook. London: Macdonald & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 1964. *Green, William. The Observer's Book of Aircraft. London: Frederick Warne & Co. Ltd., 1968. *Gunston, Bill. "Buccaneer - An Outstanding Strike Aeroplane". Flight International, Vol. 83, No. 2821, 4 April 1963, pp. 467–478. *Hampshire, Edward. From East of Suez to the Eastern Atlantic: British Naval Policy 1964-70. Surrey, UK: Ashgate Publishing, 2013. ISBN 1-40946-614-0. *Harding, Richard. The Royal Navy 1930-1990: Innovation and Defense. London: Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-20333-768-9. *Jackson, A.J. Blackburn Aircraft since 1909. London: Putnam, 1968. ISBN 0-370-00053-6. *Jefford, Wing Commander C.G., MBE, BA, RAF (Retd). RAF Squadrons, a Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of all RAF Squadrons and their Antecedents since 1912. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1-84037-141-2. *Laming, Tim. Fight's On!: Airborne with the Aggressors. Zenith Imprint, 1996. ISBN 0-76030-260-X. *Polmar, Norman. Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events, Volume I: 1909-1945. Herndon, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2006. ISBN 1-57488-663-0. *Steenkamp, Willem. Borderstrike!: South Africa Into Angola 1975-1980. Lulu.com, 2006. ISBN 1-92016-900-8. *Van Pelt, Michel. Rocketing Into the Future: The History and Technology of Rocket Planes. New York: Springer, 2012. ISBN 1-46143-200-6. *White, Rowland. Phoenix Squadron: HMS Ark Royal, Britain's Last Topguns and the Untold Story of Their Most Dramatic Mission. London: Bantam Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-59305-451-2. *Winchester, Jim, ed. "Blackburn Buccaneer." Military Aircraft of the Cold War (The Aviation Factfile). London: Grange Books plc, 2006. ISBN 1-84013-929-3. *Wynn, Humphrey. "RAF Buccaneers". Flight International, 11 February 1971, Vol. 99 No. 3231, pp. 202–207. *Wynn, Humphrey. The RAF Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Forces: Their Origins, Roles and Deployment, 1946-1969: a Documentary History. London: HMO, 1997. ISBN 0-11772-833-0. External links *Blackburn Buccaneer from Thunder and Lightnings *The Blackburn Buccaneer at Air Vectors *Blackburn Buccaneer: The awesome "Banana" Jet *The FAA Buccaneer Association * - explanation of BLC on Buccaneer and comparison with Phantom *"NA.39 - Blackburn's Naval Bomber: A First Analytical Study" a 1958 Flight article by Bill Gunston *"Flying the Buccaneer" a 1962 Flight article Category:1950s British attack aircraft Category:Carrier-based aircraft Buccaneer Category:Air refueling